Genetic and Molecular Biology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hereditary and Molecular Biology - Essay Example The chromosome hypothesis on legacy said that Chromosomes are two by two and qualities, or their alleles, are situated on the chromosomes. 4. Every one of a few Alternative types of a Gene is called an Allele. Letters are utilized to speak to Alleles: Capital Letters allude to a Dominant Allele that veils or conceals articulation of a passive allele. Lowercase Letters allude to a Recessive Allele its demeanor is conceal by a predominant allele. Truly, it is feasible for multiple alleles of a quality to exist. 5. Researchers bit by bit found out about DNA in an inquisitively curved manner that is normal in science. For a certain something, the revelation of DNA required advancement on three separate fronts: cytology (the investigation of cells through a magnifying instrument), hereditary qualities, and science. Researchers taking a shot at DNA in the mid 1950s utilized the expression quality to mean the littlest unit of hereditary data, however they didn't have the foggiest idea what a quality really resembled fundamentally and artificially, or how it was duplicated, with not many mistakes, a great many ages. By and by, numerous researchers kept on accepting that DNA had a structure excessively uniform and easy to store hereditary data for making complex living life forms. The hereditary material, they contemplated, must comprise of proteins, substantially more various and perplexing particles known to play out a large number of natural capacities in the cell. 6. Quality is an innate unit comprising of a grouping of DNA that possesses a particular area on a chromosome and decides a specific trademark in a life form. A chromosome is a gathering of snaked strands of DNA, containing numerous qualities. 7. Each strand of DNA is a chain of compound building squares, called nucleotides, of which there are four sorts: adenine (abridged A), cytosine (C), guanine (G) and thymine (T). These suitable base parts of nucleic acids can be polymerized in any

Marketing during Economic Depression

Promoting Under the Situation of Economic Depression The money related emergency started in Wall Street of United States has spread everywhere throughout the world quickly. Due to the firmer and closer financial associations between nations, pretty much every nation is starting to encounter to some degree financial downturn. Considering the issue of advertising under the circumstance of financial downturn is getting important for some organizations in any zone of the world. Showcasing is characterized as a social and administrative procedure by which people and gatherings acquire what they need and need through making and trading items and incentive with others. An organization needing to have an effective promoting technique should initially comprehend the showcasing condition around it. An organization's advertising condition comprises of the entertainers and powers outside promoting that influence showcasing the executives' capacity to create and keep up effective exchanges with its objective clients. What's more, the financial downturn circumstance ought to be considered as a major aspect of the advertising condition study region. The consistently changing microenvironment and macroenvironment offer the two chances and dangers to organizations. In the event that an organization needs to be fruitful in any condition, it should know the essential significance of watching and adjusting to the evolving condition, so it can stay away from the ominous conditions and handle any chances. Monetary condition is one of full scale factors that impact a company’s showcasing concerns. Hypothetically, it comprises of components that influence shopper buying force and spending designs. Under the circumstance of financial downturn, both buyer buying force and spending designs have, somewhat, changed. In this manner, an organization must have an away from of what those progressions are. Concerning the buyer purchasing power, discouraged monetary circumstance is constantly related with diminished shopper purchasing power. For instance, during the 1997’s Asian financial emergency, a great many nations saw their cash devalue as the emergency unfurled. The purchasers of those Asian ‘tiger' economies turned out to be all the more monetarily mindful and they invested substantially less at that energy. Considering the spending designs, as Engle proposed, when family pay rises, the rate spent on food decreases, the rate spent on lodging stays steady and both the rate spent on different classifications and that committed to investment funds increment. The diminished pay in the financial downturn largy affects what someone in particular purchases, for example, he may spend less on amusement or garments, and the level of salary spending on food may increment. Along these lines, we can see that the discouraged economy is going to impact customer purchasing conduct. For all the four social, social, individual, and mental elements, they influence the customer buy firmly. Under despondency, there are a couple of wonders that are outstanding for organizations. Initially, buyers lean toward all the more generally modest products and less extravagances. There is a measurement number for the 1997 Asian monetary emergency, in Thailand, 58% individuals didn’t purchase any planned garments any more and 45% individuals didn’t drink whisky. While ongoing financial emergency in Vietnam made the deals of car plunge. As indicated by a report of VAMA, 16 individuals from this vehicle fabricating affiliation just sold 11500 vehicles in May 2008, 2000 less those deals of April. Additionally, shoppers may go to the brands whose brand picture are related with mass market and individuals purchase less imported products. Second, towards companies’ advancement and notice, purchasers may respond uniquely in contrast to previously. Since the financial downturn carries a great deal of mental strain to individuals, they are not as intrigued as in the business promotions any more. They may purchase merchandise that are in advancement, yet the vast majority of them will purchase less or purchase littler size bundles. Third, concerning the shopping place, individuals incline toward the limited stores that the costly retail establishment. During the 1973 oil emergency in America, the recurrence of 79. % buyers shopping in the limited stores or purchasing straightforwardly from wholesales expanded a great deal. Aside from the progressions above, there is another point; that is, the utilization of necessities differs a bit, since they have moderately inelastic requests. So what should an organization do in face of the changing promoting condition? There are a few reactions with respect to the earth chang e. Organizations respond contrastingly in light of the fact that some view the change is wild in this manner inactively adjust, while others may attempt to impact the change and adopt a proactive strategy. The discouraged economy is commonly seen as a wild component, so organizations should attempt to discover strategies to adjust in the current circumstance. Regardless, organizations must concentrate on their center upper hand and decrease the all-inclusive brands showcasing that are not all that serious. In the discouraged economy, it isn't just the customers that are affected; organizations additionally have less assets to utilize. Organizations ought to pull back from those less serious markets and utilize its own constrained assets (HR, capital and advertising channels, and so forth used to solidify and reinforce the business sectors of results of center intensity. At that point is the advancement and publicizing system for the organization. As noted previously, shoppers are not that effectively to be affected by those things. So organizations should focus on the crowd of advertisements precisely, and stay away from the best approach to squander cash on the publicizing to the indi viduals who once in a while purchase the products. It is proposed that organizations utilize less mass adverting techniques, for example, promotions on paper and flyers. Rather, organizations should attempt to guarantee that individuals who read the advertisements have a high likelihood to purchase the merchandise. For instance, a Targeting Mobilephone Magazine sends the business data messages to 200,000 top of the line supporters. That strategy is of ease, yet it is definitely more compelling than customary ways. Moreover is the value issue. Individuals are increasingly delicate to the cost and they need less expensive merchandise than before since their buying power is regularly decreased during the downturn. Individuals decline their utilization on extravagances and other excellent significant expense merchandise. The more for less, the equivalent for less and less for substantially less offer system are bound to prevail in this circumstance. Also, since clients are probably going to go to the nearby limited stores, organizations may change their dissemination channels a piece. They can place more merchandise in the limited stores and distribution center style markets. In the event that the monetary downturn is simply in the scope of home nation, organizations can likewise expand the fare. Be that as it may, not all organizations need to adopt a moderate strategy in the financial downturn. For some of them, particularly the huge and solid organizations, it is a decent possibility for them to extend their piece of the pie. Since discouraged economy just makes some little contenders bankrupt, the solid organizations can get the customers of those organizations, in this way having a bigger piece of the overall industry. On the off chance that an organization can build up a picture that is dependable and indestructible when clients have some mental weight, it is bound to win the kindness of clients considerably after the downturn is finished. There is an idiom, the more genuine the downturn, the more open doors in the market. Also, the CEO of Alibaba. om, Ma Yun, likewise said â€Å"the monetary emergency will make new business progress. † There are numerous motivations to accept that the discouraged economy brings us the two chances and difficulties. Taking everything into account, if an organization can comprehend the earth around it well, study the shopper purchasing conduct cautiously, and build up a proper showcasing system for itself, it can absolutely have opportunity to evade the troublesom e factors and keep up its intensity, subsequently winning under the circumstance of financial downturn and some other states of the economy.

Youre at SIPA but want to learn another language COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Youre at SIPA but want to learn another language COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog Theres a Columbia University fellowship available for SIPA students who are interested in advancing their language proficiency. The Foreign Language Area Studies (FLAS) Fellowship program is predicated on the belief that the well-being of the United States, its economy, and its long-range security depend on proper education and training of Americans in international and foreign language studies. FLAS fellowships strengthen the nations ability to compete effectively in the modern world by promoting foreign language competence and area and international knowledge and by ensuring the continuation of area expertise in a variety of fields. The FLAS fellowship competition is open to both undergraduate and graduate students of Columbia University who are U.S. citizens or permanent residents who are enrolled in a full-time program that combines modern foreign language training with international studies or area studies. The FLAS award offers fellowship assistance to students undergoing beginning, intermediate, or advanced training in modern foreign languages and related international or area studies. AWARD FLAS Fellowships are contingent upon funding from the U.S. Department of Education. The Estimated FLAS grant amount is:   Graduate students tuition grant is $18,000 and the stipend is $15,000 Remaining tuition, health service fee and medical insurance (basic coverage only) can be covered by the students’ school of enrollment within Columbia University (ex. GSAS, SIPA, TC). Please check with your school’s financial aid offices.   The FLAS fellowship does not cover any miscellaneous fees, such as computer lab fee, student activity fee and university facility fee, etc. USE OF FUNDS FOR OVERSEAS FELLOWSHIP With the approval from the United States Department of Education, Academic Year FLAS awards may be used for full-time dissertation research provided that the student is at the advanced level of language proficiency. The use of the foreign language in dissertation research must be extensive enough to be able to consider the language improvement facilitated by the research equal to improvement that would be obtained from a full academic year’s worth of formal classroom instruction. Please note that since the FLAS program is for language acquisition. Use of the FLAS fellowship for dissertation research is not encouraged by the U.S. Department of Education. The U.S. Department of Education prefers that students apply to the Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad. All overseas programs of study must be at the intermediate or advanced level of language proficiency and must be approved by the United States Department of Education at least thirty (30) days prior to the start of the program. SUMMER: The Summer FLAS Fellowship competition is open to undergraduate (including Barnard College) and graduate students, including Ph.D. candidates, who are U.S. citizens, nationals, or permanent residents who are accepted for enrollment or enrolled in a formal program of intensive language study. The Summer FLAS fellowship tuition grant is up to $5,000 and a $2,500 stipend for undergraduate and graduate students.   Combined tuition and fees cannot exceed $5,000. The summer language course studied under the Summer FLAS fellowship must be the equivalent of an academic year course, at least 140 credit or contact hours (120 at advanced level), and a minimum of six (6) weeks in length. All overseas programs of study must be at the intermediate or advanced level (graduate students) of language proficiency or at the beginning level if an appropriate beginning level is not available in the United States and all overseas language programs must be approved by the United States Department of Education at least thirty (30) days prior to the start of the program. Please provide any relevant program brochures, web sites and/or documentation with your application. Summer FLAS is not available for dissertation research. The application deadline for the FLAS fellowship is Friday, February 28, 2014, at 11:59 p.m. EST. For more information, see the GSAS website, or contact GSAS at gsas-finaid@columbia.edu.

Personal Narrative My Own Childhood - 1364 Words

I chose to write about my own childhood. My story started when I was born on October 15, 1988 in Jacksonville, North Carolina to a then family of three Richard, Dana, and Karen. I was the second born and my sister was 3 and a half years old. I was born into a military family so I grew up in a few different locations. The month after I was born my family relocated from North Carolina to sunny Twenty-nine palms, California. My family lived there until I was about 5 years old until my father got a new duty assignment to Hollidaysburg, Pennsylvania as a Marine recruiter. This is the place that I claim as my hometown as I lived there until I turned 18 and joined the US Air Force. My childhood was a very â€Å"normal†. I had a father, mother, a†¦show more content†¦My parents grew very concerned as the teachers felt that I could not keep up with my peers. I had problems with speech and pronunciation as well as paying attention. There was even the thought I may have had a le arning disability or disorder. My parents were very reluctant to just accept these diagnosis’s as they were given by teachers and not medical specialists. So as a course of action until I could see doctors and take aptitude tests, everyone decided that I needed to start receiving some individualized attention from teachers. That was the exact moment where I thought why am I not with everyone else. Why am I different? I remember the first few weeks of those isolated sessions I felt worthless and began acting out. I was only doing so because at that age all I wanted to do was fit it. It hurt that at that time no one could even tell me why I was there. It was strictly a guess for them to segregate me from my peers. That led me to getting what felt like a thousand different learning exams, evaluations, and learning sessions. Much to my teachers surprise there was nothing mentally wrong with the way I was learning. According to the tests it seemed I was just not being academically challenged. The doctors explained it was just my way of dealing with my boredom. I felt that the entire situation of â€Å"having something wrong with me† stereotypes were a big influence to everyone involved. No one wanted to give me the benefit of the doubt. The teachers and other adults

The Role Of Media Systems Throughout The United States

Costa Rica has a population of 3.7 million people, and although the official language is Spanish, English is spoken around Puerto Limon. The country spans 51,000 square kilometers and is divided into seven provinces. The nation s capital, San Josà ©, is home to one-third of all Costa Ricans. Costa Rica has long history of democracy, no army, and relatively peaceful political development, which provides a stark contrast to many of the war torn countries in Latin America. The majority of Costa Ricans are of European or mestizo descent, and Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion, though evangelical Protestantism is becoming increasingly common.Costa Rica has one of the highest literacy rates in the region with 95 percent of the population considered to be literate.It has the region s highest standard of living, and a life expectancy comparable to that of the United States. Costa Rica also has a legacy of supporting education, beginning with universal free public education in 1879, thus leading to the rapid development and expansion of all forms of media. To fully understand the role of Media Systems throughout Costa Rica, we must first consider the nation’s history. In the colonial era, Costa Rica was often forgotten, as it lacked the labor force and mineral wealth the Spanish colonists were interested in. In 1824 an elected congress chose Juan Mora Fernandez as the first chief of state, and the first newspaper appeared shortly after his re-election in 1829. The firstShow MoreRelatedGender, Race, And Class957 Words   |  4 Pagesthat luxury can only be afforded by primarily white, rich males. The media in the United States has made a lot of progress towards showing gender and racial equality on TV but America still has a long way to go. As of 2015 white men still have a patriarchal ranking in media compared to women and minorities. This essay will be discussing how intersectionality, such as gender, race, and class, play a key part in gender roles in TV media today. Luxury is the main focus in Volvo Cars US’ commercial forRead MoreAnalysis of the Article on the Role of Information Communication Technologies in the Arab Spring1171 Words   |  5 PagesArticle The Role of Information Communication Technologies in the Arab Spring by Ekaterina Stepanova Brief summary In this article, the author Ekaterina Stepanova mainly emphasizes on the importance of Information Communication Technologies (ICT) in the recent global event of Arab Spring. Here it has been said that how much active role the social media has played in the overall events that has led to the toppling of governments and dictatorships of the Arab world. 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My Personality and Learning Style Free Essays

My Personality and Learning Style My personality type is ISTJ which is introverted, sensor, thinker, and judger. Introverted people are more likely to be reserved, private and more likely to work alone than with groups. Social events are not a strong characteristic of an introvert which prefers to be in a calm quiet location with relatives and solitude. We will write a custom essay sample on My Personality and Learning Style or any similar topic only for you Order Now Sensor’s tend to prefer problems with a set of guidelines that state facts of data directly and learn through example or experience. Thinkers believe that rational and logical thinking over emotional feeling’s. Judger’s have structure and balance their time and schedule precisely. Which can be managing people or working with a set of specific instructions and goals. I believe that the personality type test is accurate in describing my Personality. The test states that I am sixty percent introverted which means that i prefer working alone and reflect on my thoughts. Introverts might not ask question’s and rely on others to ask for them but if i know there is something i don’t understand and absolutely can’t figure out by myself that’s when i ask a question. I feel that personality can have a big impact on your grades, for example extroverts are more likely to talk during a teacher’s lecture and cause them to miss some information. While introverts tend to keep more thoughts to themselves and are more likely to pay attention in class. Having a clear understanding of how you learn and perceive information which can be more efficient in less time wasted. V. A. R. K is visual, aural, read, write and kinesthetic. The way you process or perceive information in the classroom can define the grade you earn. My preferred choice of sensory is reading and writing because i like write and read notes over several times. Memorizing information, notes and study material is my most effective way of assuring that i pass my exams. You can have more than one way of learning through your sensor’s which is called multimodal are not necessarily smarter but just prefer multiple modes of learning which is purely based on preference. Being successful in the classroom for myself begins with paying attention to the information the professor tries to relay. Sitting in the front of the classroom is important to me because I know it gives me an advantage over someone who sits in the back where it is difficult to hear. The first thing I do when I arrive to the classroom is copy the notes the teacher has written on the board or screen. I sense it will be important to know unless told otherwise by the instructor. Knowing I prefer the sensor over intuition i will more than likely choose a class and degree where the information is directly stated with facts and concrete data over a class where theory and imagination is involved. Personality and learning style play’s an important role in your education. Students tend to perceive information different way and rates. The students who have compatible learning style with the teachers teaching style will retain information better and be efficient in learning. Every teacher might not have the same teaching style but if you take steps to adapt you will increase your chances of doing well in the class. Talk to the instructor and counselor’s so you’re learning needs can be met and prevent you from failing the class. How to cite My Personality and Learning Style, Essays

Value of Technical Publications in Automotive Engineering Industry free essay sample

[pic] Position Paper on Value of Technical Publications in Automotive Engineering Industry Providing useful and accurate documents is critical to ensure that the user can easily find the required information. If the end users cannot find the answers to their problems, they assume that the documentation is useless. To be useful, the documentation must be clear, concise, and well designed. The documentation that is accurate and complete also needs to be well designed. Accurate and easy-to-understand technical documentation is the only way to provide information to the end user, and it is also cost-effective. India is the 9th largest automobile industry in the world, with a production of 2. 3 million units in 2008 alone. In 2009, India became Asia’s 4th largest exporter of cars. Automobile companies like Nissan, Volkswagen, Toyota and Hyundai have expanded manufacturing facilities to India. Nissan and Hyundai predict an export of over 250,000 vehicles by 2011. [pic]  ¦ Business Proposals  ¦ Legal Disclaimers  ¦ Policy Manuals  ¦ Style Guide Design  ¦ Template Design Telephone: +91. 80. 40741400 / +91. 80. 41256367 Corporate Enquiries: [emailprotected] in TWB is a leading technical publisher with an excellent record of providing unmatched technical documentation to many major companies. TWB is the ideal choice for leading manufacturers in the automotive industry. TWB helps customers with all their technical documentation needs such as design documents, analytical reports, handbooks, technical specification documents, technical reports and training materials. TWB works closely with client teams located globally, and assists them in meeting their worldwide product announcements and launch deadlines. TWB works round-the-clock with client teams and help them with quick responses that facilitate timely distribution of documents around the globe. Rapid technological advances in the automotive industry have resulted in complex and diverse technical products. The task of creating documentation for such a wide range of products may seem complex and daunting, since documentation has to be revised or updated to keep pace with advancements. Quality documentation is easy to update and maintain, reducing the cost involved despite the massive amounts of documentation required by the industry. Differences in the functionality and quality of technical products are slowly reducing. However the complexity of these products is increasing correspondingly. As product complexity increases, the quality of the documentation is often the deciding factor in customer decision making. TWB provides documentation with professional quality. Product liability regulations, like the EU product liability directive, have impacted technical documentation enormously. Today, the demand for experts in technical documentation is high to guarantee quality document creation, thus avoiding legal ramifications. Economic Business Research  ¦ Industry Analysis  ¦ Market Opportunity Analysis  ¦ Competitive Business Analysis  ¦ Company Prospect Profiling  ¦ Reporting Solutions  ¦ Assessment of Unmet Market Needs  ¦ Status and Potential of Technologies  ¦ Benchmarking of Strategies Vs Competition  ¦ Forecasting  ¦ Sales Force Effectiveness  ¦ Market Assessments  ¦ Competitive Intell igence  ¦ Opinion Leadership  ¦ Emerging Markets evaluation and research TWB – Leading Technical Documentation Outsourcing Company Telephone: +1. 512. 586. 8357 Attractive Publications as Useful Marketing Tool Document Management Solutions  ¦ Record Management Storage and Retrieval  ¦ US Office: TWB 11701 Norwegian Wood Drive Austin, TX 78758 Records Management  ¦ Software Translation Services  ¦ Document Translation Services  ¦ Localization (L10N) Testing  ¦ Internationalization (I18N) Testing Translation and Localization Services In the automotive industry, it is necessary to create several different types of documentation for different purposes: design documents, technical reports, specification documents, user manuals and training material and so on. Each of these documents addresses a different audience, each of whom has a specific role in the automotive industry. It is important that documents be created keeping in mind the role of the person who will use the documentation. For example, a technical analyst, who is accustomed to reviewing satellite images on a workstation, needs to learn how to use the system and software to magnify the image, but not how to analyze the image. For users who start without technical or product knowledge, you need to provide instructions to use the product as well as information they need to look for as a result of using the product. This presents a more difficult problem. Different needs of the end users and the gap between their technical and product knowledge determines the amount of information that goes into technical publications. Deployment and Support The recent economic crisis has created momentum for a massive structural change in the auto industry, preparing the industry for growth for the next decade. â€Å"The automotive industry in India grew at a compounded annual growth rate of 11. 5% over the past five years. † – The Economic Survey, 2008 – 2009. Growth of the automotive industry in India Challenges and Solutions Qualitative Analytics for Decision Support This paper presents the value of and need for quality Technical Publications in the Automotive Engineering industry. Technical publications include a wide variety of material such as design documents, analytical reports, handbooks, technical specification documents, user manuals, requirement documents, technical reports, white papers, online help files, classroom and web based training material, policy manuals, lab reports, and case studies. Modern automotive engineering is a complex process, integrating elements of mechanical, electrical and electronic, software and safety engineering. The key concept behind the integration of multiple processes is to automate vehicle manufacture and increase efficiency. This has led to rapid innovation in the development of automotive systems. Today, customers are offered highly customized products at low prices. This is achieved by configuring individual vehicles from a large number of options. This necessitates the creation of highly accurate and specific product documentation. Further, the rapid technological progress in the automotive industry has led to increased complexity in technical products. Owner and user manuals have increased by over 100% in volume in the last decade. This has proven to be a challenge, since globalization has necessitated an increase in the number of languages into which a technical document is translated. With each additional language translation, costs increase, directly proportional to the size and complexity of the documentation. This makes the creation of simple, easily comprehensible documentation essential to the automotive industry. This, in turn, necessitates the involvement of Technical Documentation Specialists in the creation of these documents. In this paper we will discuss the importance of technical publications to the automotive industry, to facilitate the growth, and development of the industry. â€Å"TWB believes that technology cannot exist without being communicated effectively. †  ¦ Workflows  ¦ Standard Operating Procedures  ¦ ISO Documentation  ¦ CMM Documentation  ¦ Installation and Configuration Guides  ¦ Operations Manual  ¦ Process Documentation  ¦ Web 2. development  ¦ Web content  ¦ Web applications Web site Development  ¦ Graphic Designing  ¦ Info graphics  ¦ 2D 3D animation  ¦ Line drawings and illustrations Illustrations  ¦ Single Sourcing  ¦ File Version Control  ¦ Document Naming Conventions  ¦ Consistent Document Formatting  ¦ Data Transformation Content Management TWB is India’s leader in technical communication outsourcing and educ ation. TWB offers a complete suite of services that allow our customers to effectively publish their technical knowledge with their people and processes. TWB’s customers range from Global 500 – including Cisco, Accenture, McAfee, LG, Samsung, Citrix, SAP, Siemens, AOL, Intel; Indian technology majors – including Infosys, Wipro; Global defense majors Pratt Whitney, Honeywell, DRDO, HAL; and exciting technology startups. TWBs expertise in technical communication ranges from IT Products and Outsourcing, ITES, Banking, Financial, Aerospace, Defense, Ship Building to Hi-tech Manufacturing, and Discrete and Process Manufacturing. TWB’s services include: The Importance of the Automotive Industry: The automotive industry is among the few that have shown steady growth during the last few years, particularly with the troubled economy. The automotive industry is important not just for its direct effects, but for its indirect effects as well. The industry has a large, complex supply chain, which draws from both specialized component suppliers and material suppliers. The automotive industry is one of the largest consu mers of products of the aluminum, rubber, glass, plastics and steel industries. For many industries, the automotive industry is a leading consumer, whose requirements provide an impetus to innovations that benefit other sectors.  ¦ Value of Technical Publications: Technical Publications are very essential for transferring product knowledge to the end users. Providing proper material to use technology and products enables the user to accept and efficiently use the product. Frequently, the quality of documentation is a factor which directly contributes to a customer’s decision to purchase or reject a product. Faulty assumptions about documentation lead to inaccurate and hard-to-understand material which discourages end users from the product itself. This also decreases the changes of marketing the products in the global markets.  ¦ Role of Documentation Outsourcing: The complexity involved in automotive engineering, arising from the integration of electric, electronic, manufacturing, software, and hardware systems requires that vendors and purchasers look at outsourcing their documentation needs to well-established Technical Publications Solutions providers. This helps the company cut costs and at the same time deliver their products with quality documents. Growth of the automotive industry Globally These faulty assumptions result in incomprehensible documents:  ¦ The developers know the product better than anyone else: With time constraints and limited resources, many companies are tempted to let the programmers do the documentation. The engineers and developers know the product very well. However, the developer is likely to provide technology-centered information; where as the end user requires task-centered information. pic]  ¦ The application is complicated; having a writer learn about it will take too long: Learning the product should not be a major obstacle for the writers with the right technical background. Publications for Different Levels of Technical and Product Knowledge Benefits Business Documentation The purpose of technical publications is to transfer product knowledge to the end user, in a comprehensible format. The s trategies of communication and levels of information vary depending on the type of product. When delivering a product, whether a hardware product or a software application, it is equally important to give the users information about the product’s operation and maintenance. In the real world scenario, technical publications are often developed as an afterthought. This usually results in inaccurate and hard-to-understand material. As a result, the users dislike these materials and avoid using them. Inaccurate and hard-to-understand material also results in the user’s inability to understand and implement high-end technologies. The users might reject the product. Technical Publication for Transferring Product Knowledge Faulty Assumptions that Result in Problems in Documentation â€Å"Mark Oline, a Fitch Ratings Analyst predicted that sales will rise to 11. 1 million cars and trucks next year, a 7. 8 percent increase over the 10. 3 million he expects for 2009. † China’s automobile market showed massive growth in 2010, with output and sales for January continuing from the growth in December 2009, to reach 1. 6148 million and 1. 6642 million units respectively. Autofacts forecasts a 10% improvement in sales in the North America, predicting sales of 13. million units with an assembly forecast of 10. 4 million units. In South America, the vehicle sales reached 3 million units in 2009, a record-breaking 12. 7% increase over sales in the 2008. This growth is expected to continue, both in sales and assembly. â€Å"Knowledge is people, money, learning, flexibility and competitive advantage. Knowledge is more relevant to sustained busine ss than capital or labor. And yet knowledge remains the most neglected asset of a business. 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Avicenna on Induction.Doc Essay Example

Avicenna on Induction.Doc Essay Example Avicenna on Induction.Doc Essay Avicenna on Induction.Doc Essay Avicenna on Induction M. A. Ejeii University of Isfahan ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is to discuss Avicennas deductive justification of induction. The paper introduces Avicennaâ„ ¢s theory of induction as a post-falsificationist theory of his time, and then proceeds to discuss a distinction he has made between induction and experience. The paper then discusses the theory and focuses on some of the problems related to Avicennaâ„ ¢s claim that our belief in inductive generalization is based on a deductive structure, and differentiates it from a view criticized by Hume. The paper ends up with a short comparison of what Avicenna, Hume and Ayer say on the kind justification in question. Keywords: Avicenna, Ayer, Hume, Induction, Experience, deductive justification, Principle of Plenitude. Introduction Inductive reasoning is discussed in almost all Avicennaâ„ ¢s logical works.[1] But his most detailed discussion of induction occurs in his encyclopedic work Al-Shifa (The Healing), in Kitab al-Burhan (Book of Demonstration). For the purpose of our current discussion it is important to note that, prior to Avicennaâ„ ¢s time, there had been some philosophical discussion of the problem of induction, and various attempts to find justification for inductive knowledge. Among these theories there had also existed a falsificationist view to which Al-Farabi (d. 950/51), Avicennaâ„ ¢s predecessor, adhered. The following excerpt, which the writer found in one of his logical works, corroborates the point: And there are some others who wanted to validate (tas-hih, making sound/correct) the major premise through induction, but when they found that induction is inadequate for that purpose, a point, which we have frequently made in what we said before, they rejected induction as a means for justifying that premise, and used it instead to falsify it.[2] Now, one can safely assume that Avicenna had been quite familiar with the views of his well known predecessor and the kind of critical approach to the problem of induction that al-Farabi is talking about, As a result, Avcennaâ„ ¢s own treatment of the problem can be seen as comparable to that of the post-falsificationist theorists of our own time. Thus his suggestions can be found relevant to current discussions of the problem and contribute to discussions. Unfortunately there is no further reference to, and information on this topic in al-Farabiâ„ ¢s extant works, but assuming Avicennas familiarity with those discussions and works, his treatment of the problem can be seen comparable to the post-falsificationist theorists of our time, that in their treatment of induction have reverted to concepts of causality and essences. [3] 1. Experience vs. Induction Avicennaâ„ ¢s deductive justification of induction Inductive reasoning is discussed in almost all Avicennas logical works. But his most detailed discussion of induction occurs in his encyclopedic work Al-Shtfa (The Healing), in Kitab al-Burhan (Book of Demonstration). The cornerstone of Avicennas theory of inductive reasoning is a distinction he makes between experience and incomplete induction. According to him experience is a rationally justified procedure, while (incomplete) induction is not. In Al-Najat (Deliverance) he defines induction as a judgment about a universal, inasmuch as it is realized in its particularsâ„ ¢.[4] The definition is intended to cover both complete and incomplete induction in their Aristotelian sense. Hence Avicenna immediately proceeds to divide induction thus defined into two kinds, complete and incomplete: either in all particulars, which will be a complete induction, or in some of them, and this will be an incomplete inductionâ„ ¢. The undivided sense is in agreement with Aristotleâ„ ¢s definition of induction as stated in Topics, i.e. a passage from individuals to universalsâ„ ¢. It also accords with induction as discussed in Prior Analytics, i.e., a passage from all the species of a genus to a generalization about the genus itself.â„ ¢ The inadequacy of incomplete induction is emphasized in almost all of Avicennaâ„ ¢s logical works. Here is a quotation from his Daneshnameh (Book of Knowledge): And when those who indulge in inductive reasoning observe that many or most cases are of a certain attribute, they conclude that all are so. But the conclusion does not necessarily hold true, since it may be that the unobserved instances are contrary to the observed ones, and while a hundred thousand instances agree, yet there may be another that doesnâ„ ¢t. This is exemplified by the case of crocodile, which moves its upper jaw [when chewing], and not its lower one.[5] Having rejected (incomplete) induction as a means of justifying empirical generalizations, Avicenna, instead describes a partially similar procedure which he calls experienceâ„ ¢. While by definition not a species of deduction, experience, nevertheless, exhibits a deductive structure. In short, the process of attaining certainty in empirical generalizations, according to Avicenna, starts with the observation of particulars, and then reaches its conclusion through a deductive mode of thought, a deduction that elsewhere calls concealed (or imperceived) deduction.[6] It is due to the introduction of this deductive mode that experience differs from induction and the conclusion of an inductive reasoning is in fact justified. But what exactly is this concealed or imperceived inference Avicennas characterization suggests a natural explanation. However, in order to explain the details it will be convenient to rely as much as possible on Avicennas texts. This, of course, calls for lengthy quotations, but due to the importance of the point in question the reader, hopefully, will find it rewarding. In the following quotation Avicenna first illustrates the difference between induction and experience by an example, and then discusses some objections to, and possible misunderstandings of, his method he experience and the concealed inference involved. So let us start with his argument for the method of experience: Experience, however, is different from induction. And we shall soon explain what the difference consists in. Experience is like drawing the conclusion: scammony is purgative of bile. Surely when that happens frequently enough, it cannot any longer be considered as a matter of coincidence. So we make the judgment that it is in the nature (Shaâ„ ¢n) of scammony to be purgative of bile, and we are assured of that. [7] Further down, on the same page, but in another connection, Avicenna states the same argument in slightly different words: When it is verified repeatedly that the purging of bile follows the administration of scammony, we will conclude that this cannot be regarded as a matter of coincidence. Since what is coincidentally true cannot occur always or frequently. Thus we conclude that it is caused by scammony. The above argument uses as its major premise the principle What is true as a matter of coincidence cannot occur always or frequentlyâ„ ¢. This premise together with the frequently observed fact that administration of scammony is followed by the purging of bile, yields the conclusion: scammony is purgative of bile. The argument is thus, a hypothetical syllogism and has the form of: (1) p ( ~ q, ~ ~ q, /( ~ p The argument (1) is a deductive one, but it is not to be confused with another argument, also called deductive, discussed often in the literature, and propounded first by Hume in order to criticize it. We shall discuss that argument in part 3 below. The argument (1) also called concealed or imperceived deduction, lies at the ground of our belief in empirical generalizations. Now for example, when under the familiar same circumstances a sufficient number of cases of administration of scammony were followed by purging of bile, due to the concealed argument (1) with the major premise What is true as a matter of coincidence cannot occur always or frequentlyâ„ ¢ results in the conclusion Scammony is purgative of bileâ„ ¢. The first premise says if things did occur as a matter of coincidence then it would not be that they occur always or frequentlyâ„ ¢. Now, negating the consequent (canceling double negation) we shall have: therefore the course of events in question is not a matte r of coincidenceâ„ ¢, i.e., Scammony is purgative of bile. Thus, when a sufficient number of observations made of the administration of scion being followed by purging of bile, or that water boils when heated to a certain temperature, then under the conditions described below in part 2, on the ground of general principle of causation and in the form of Modus Tollens one concludes the generalization that `Scammony is purgative of bile`, or ` water boils when heated to a certain temperature`. Avicennaâ„ ¢s example is a typical causal law, i.e., a law that mentions a cause and an effect. It, however, can be easily generalized to the so called functional relationship, like the one which exits in the gas law in its classic form, and which establishes a relation between the volume, temperature, and (external and internal) pressure of a gas. The general form of the concealed argument, of course, remains the same as in (1). It seems to me, though I will not argue it here, that the principle that whatever is true as a matter of coincidence cannot occur always or frequentlyâ„ ¢ is related somehow to the Principle of Plenitude according to which everything that is possible will also some time come true. Avicenna seems to be committed to this principle in Al-Shifa. In that book he always equates possibility with being sometimes true and necessity with being always true.[8] However there is another suggestion for the origin of the principle. Professor Weinberg has suggested that the principle is directly derived from Aristotle. Professor Weinberg does not mention any reference to Aristotleâ„ ¢s works, but his suggestion is supported by Aristotleâ„ ¢s text in his discussion of the four causes, in Physics, II, where he talks about chance and spontaneity. I shall return to this issue in the appendix. 2. Explanation and Further Elucidation We shall now turn to a question that is essential to Avicennaâ„ ¢s theory of induction, and of which he is concerned to clear up some possible confusion. Here again I shall quote first a passage in which he summarizes his method from the end of his discussion in al-Shifa, and then explain various points he makes by adding further details. In the quotation that follows the numbers have been inserted to demarcate the different elements of his theory. He writes: What we are saying is this: [1] Often, as a result of experience, we find ourselves in a state of certainty, and we want to explicate the circumstances under which the certainty is attained. [2] This happens when we are assured that nothing accidental is taken into account, and [3] this in turn will be the case when the properties of the object are known to us, and [4] we find out that when the object exists some other thing always or often follows, and that when the object does not exist, that other thing does not follow either.[9] [1] makes it explicit that Avicenna is not skeptic about the possibility of knowledge. Thus his aim is the central goal of doing philosophy of science, i.e., to explain and validate scientific knowledge. In his words the question is, under what circumstances the state of certainty in scientific knowledge is attained [2] and [3] are essential to his view and state the circumstances under which the generalizations are arrived at and lead to certainty. The term accidental, as it occurs in [2], is used in its widest sense, meaning, not causing the effect. As an example of this, he mentions a generalization about scammony being purgative of bile, when the plant is grown in certain countries, but not in others. According to him, the generalization fails because something accidental to the situation is mistaken for what is essential. He writes: Thus nor do we deny that scammony may acquire, or lack, some specific nature or characteristic in some regions such that it may not be purgative of bile. Rather the experiential judgment must be as follows: the scammony of the kind known to us at present, and through our senses, is, by its nature, or because of a certain property in it, purgative of bile, unless an impediment intervenes. [10] In other words the generalization is not about scommony absolutely or under any condition, it is rather about the kind presently known to us, and through our senses. The argument is that if scammoy under such and such condition were not purgative of bile, this would not have happened often or regularly. The conditions include for example the property of being scammony grown in some specific region, and not just being scammony. He offers a similar explanation when he discusses another counterexample adduced by a critic. The counterexample has resulted from an imagined observation made in Sudan, where it is supposed that no other men but the colored are in sight and they are the only people that appear to the senses. Upon repeated observations, the critic continues, one should conclude the false generalization that All men are coloredâ„ ¢. Discussing this counterexample, Avicenna explains the observation here is not being carried out just among human beings, as is implied by the con clusion, but among human beings under such and such conditions, or from such and such parents.. He writes: In short, if by birth is taken [to mean] as being born of colored people, or born in such and such a country the experiential judgment will hold true. But if the conclusion is taken generally, i.e. as being born of people, then the conclusion will not hold with regard to the particulars referred to. For the experience has been carried out among colored people and not just among people, and these two are not the same things.[11] Thus [2] constitutes Avicennaâ„ ¢s diagnosis for all cases in which experience leads to error, These are cases in which something accidental is taken into account, namely what is not really a cause is taken as a necessary or a sufficient condition for the phenomenon in question. However, he mentions that if the characteristic is coextensive with the one under investigation, the conclusion will hold in connection with it also. It is for this reason and other disturbing conditions that Avicenna is prepared to accept that experience can sometimes lead to error: We never maintain that experience is immune from error, and that it always leads to certainty. How can that be maintained, while even syllogistic inferences are not exempt from error[12] In order to arrive at elements that are essential to a causal connection, (3) is introduced. According to (3), to achieve a correct generalization the properties of the object must be known to us. This is required in order to determine the properties from whose existence the effect follows, and also to eliminate the possibility of there being some other factors that are essential but not taken into account. The certainty will obtain to the extent that we are assured the initial conditions obtain and are the same as those that existed in our observations. This of course will not affect the deductive structure of inductive reasoning described earlier. [4] states the concealed deduction. The central question about the major premise is, is that proposition analytic or synthetic To complete our discussion of the state of Avicennaâ„ ¢s deductive justification of inductive generalizations, two further points must be discussed. The first concerns the indispensability of deduction in inductive generalizations, and the second pertains to the hypothetical nature of generalizations thus arrived at. Avicenna evidently does not here mean that inductive generalization is purely a deductive process, but only that without the deduction generalization will not be formed. He writes: It is not by reason of the frequency of the observed instances alone that the universal judgment in question is formed, but rather as a result of frequently observed effect, together with the deduction we have just mentioned.[13] The above point is important, since some people think that the deduction in question is not needed.[14] Avicenna flatly rejects the idea that induction is purely enumerative or self-supporting. The above point is the basis of his whole theory of experience. Another point is the kind of relevance the concealed deduction bears to experiential generalization. According to Avicenna if the deduction were not to be formed, the certainty invested through observation would not be imparted to the conclusion. A next point concerns the hypothetical nature of inductive generalization obtained; the conclusion itself is hypothetical and not categorical. As a limitative aspect of his experiential method, Avicenna is much concerned to point out that the generalities thus arrived at are not absolute, but conditional, conditional upon the existence of the circumstances in which observations have been carried out. It follows, that the subsequent application of the laws in question will hold true only in cases where the circumstances under which the generalization is made obtain. Such laws, then, will not take the simple form, If x is an instance of scammony, then, given that it is prescribed, it will be purgative of bile, but the much more restrictive form: If x is an instance of the scammony of the kind k observed in this region which is here and now present to our senses, then, given k, it will be purgative of bile, unless an impediment intervenes. This in part is to ensure that the condition (2) holds. In this connection Avicenna writes: The judgment will hold universally only under those conditions in which the experience is being made, and the frequently observed property of the object will pertain to the nature of the object permanently only in the region in which the observation has been carried out. And that will be the case unless an impediment intervenes. Thus the universal judgment formed through experience will hold true under these conditions, and not absolutely.[15] But isnâ„ ¢t the condition only in the region ¦Ã¢â€ž ¢ too restrictive In other words, does not the condition make the conclusion unduly restricted in scope, and thus quite unsuitable to be used as a premise in demonstrative sciences The answer is that the conclusion will not be restricted in scope in the sense in which the statement all the hair on my head is blackâ„ ¢ is. Rather it is restricted in the sense that the statement all hair having the same condition the hair on my head has, is blackâ„ ¢ is restricted. In fact, he wants to see generalizations thus obtained as supported by corresponding true counterfactuals. He writes: However if the subject matter is of a specific nature, then the specific quality may be what has been effective in the majority of instances available to us in our observations. This will no doubt prevent the conclusion from being unrestrictedly general, and requires it to be more specific with regard to the nature of the things observed. Failure to see this point can make the result of experience erroneous with respect to generality. Although in cases like that we are assured that an object, which is so and so will be such and such, we are never assured that, if any thing is so and so then it will be such and such.[16] 3. A Note on a Criticism of Deductive Justification of Induction. An objection has been sometimes raised against a version of deductive justification that differs fundamentally from the one discussed by Avicenna. The version in question is first discussed by Hume in order to criticize it. It uses the principle that Nature is uniform as its major premise. Ayer raises an objection to Hume suggestion and argues that if the deduction thus formed is accepted it can prove too much, and it would have unexpected consequences. We shall briefly discuss Ayerâ„ ¢s objection in order to show that Avicennaâ„ ¢s deductive justification is not open to this kind of criticism. A. J. Ayer in his Probability and Evidence, discussing various stages of Humeâ„ ¢s skeptical argument, at a certain stage finds himself obliged to part company with himâ„ ¢. This is where Hume, discussing the problem we are dealing with, holds that to make an inductive conclusion valid we need as an extra premises the principle that instances of which we have had no experience must resemble those of which we have had experience and that the course of nature continues always uniformly the sameâ„ ¢. Ayer adds: The obvious objection is that a principle so general as the one that Hume advocates cannot possibly do the work that is here required of it. We cannot validate the inference form all observed As are Bs to All As are Bs by adding as a major premises Nature is uniform`. The syllogism `Nature is uniform`, `All hitherto observed swans have been white`, therefore `All swans are white` is not to be rejected as John Stuart Mill maintained, just because the minor premise turned out to be false and so landed us with a false conclusion. It was invalid all along.[17] Ayerâ„ ¢s contention here is that the syllogism `Nature is uniform`, `All hitherto observed swans have been white`, therefore `All swans are white` is not invalid either because its major premise is false as Hume thinks, or because its minor premise is false as Mill says, but because the syllogism is formally invalid. Given that the universe is uniform and that All hitherto observed swans have been whiteâ„ ¢ it would not logically follow that `All swans are white`. Thus the argument is to be rejected not because some of its premises are invalid, but because the inference has not a valid form. Ayer continues: But of course such discoveries are not taken as refuting the uniformity of nature. They are taken only as proving that the uniformities that nature exhibits are in some respects different from what we had supposed them to be. Not `All swans are white` but `All swans are nonchromatic`, or, All swans are white under such and such conditionsâ„ ¢, or black, under such and such other conditions.[18] These few lines are in complete agreement with what Avicenna has to say in the presence of a falsifying situation. The discovery of non-colored human beings was explained by saying that being born of human parents is not a sufficient condition for a newly born human being to be colored. It is interesting to note that the language and the example used here by Ayer are pretty much the same as the ones used by Avicenna : Ayer uses the example here to refute the deductive justification of induction, but Avicenna uses his example to remove a possible misunderstanding concerning his proposed method. According to Avicenna the conclusion is false not because its major is false, but because the conditions under which the observations are made are not taken into account in the conclusion. Here Ayer seems to interpret uniformity of natureâ„ ¢ in its weak sense, while as it is obvious from the context of Millâ„ ¢s argument, he actually uses the phrase in a stronger sense, in which it means uniformity under the specific circumstances where the experience is madeâ„ ¢. Leaving this point aside, to be sure, Ayer is right in holding the deductive generalization cannot be validated by adding as its major premises Nature is uniform`, since this would not be a valid argument form. In contrast, the deduction described by Avicenna is of Modus Tollens form, and valid. Its major premise is based on a general principle of causation to the effect that every event has a sufficient cause. The generalizations thus obtained are of course, According to Avicenna, not absolute and unconditional, but restricted and hypothetical. To return to the example Ayer discusses, the correct generalization would not be: All swans are whiteâ„ ¢, but All swans begotten from white parent swans are whiteâ„ ¢, etc.. According to Avicenna, when this condition is not satisfied, the experience can only yield probable judgmentâ„ ¢.[19] A similar point can be made in connection with Humeâ„ ¢s remark when he writes, The bread which I formerly ate nourished me; that is, a body of such sensible qualities was, at that time, endued with such secret powers. But does it follow that other bread must also nourish me at another time, and that like sensible qualities must always be attended with like secret powers The consequence seems nowise necessary. Avicenna would agree that the consequence is not necessary. As in the case of his own examples, the universal judgment, he would say, will hold true only under certain conditions, and not absolutely. In the case of Humeâ„ ¢s specific example Avicenna would say, it is not just a body of such sensible qualities absolutely and without further qualification that would be taken as attended by the power of nourishment, but along with it there are some other conditions that are determined and operative. These conditions may be partially or even wholly unknown to us and neglected, and this explains why experience sometimes errs. As we noted in part 2, Avicenna said that the conclusion (about scammony) will follow if it is restricted to the scammony grown in certain countries, and is of the kind known to us at present. According to him, the generalization fails because something accidental is mistaken for what is essential. This was the same point made by Ayer about what has gone wrong with the generalization All swans are white. Appendix At the end of chap. 4 of his Physics, II, Aristotle proposes to discuss the question what chance and spontaneity areâ„ ¢, and asks whether or not they can be reckoned among the division of causes.[20] The following chap. starts by: First then we observe that some things always come to pass in the same way, and others for the most part. It is clearly of neither of these that chance is said to be the cause, nor can the effect of chance be identified with any of the things that come to pass by necessity and always, or for the most part. This and similar passages in these chapters must be what people have taken as expressing the principle, What is true as a matter of coincidence cannot occur always or frequentlyâ„ ¢. But a careful examination of these passages will leave no doubt that what Aristotle has intended here is not a principle from which one can infer individual inductive laws. his thesis about language has been turned into a thesis about the world. He continues, however, not only have there been some philosophers who have mentioned chance among the causes, but there is, he reports, a further circumstance that is surprising: people often speak of events that occur by chance. He writes: Many things both come to be and are by chance and spontaneity, and although they know that each of them can be ascribed to some cause ¦nevertheless they speak of some of these things as happening by chance and others not.[21] Elsewhere, but in the same connection, Aristotle mentions as a case of chance the example of a man who, coming by chanceâ„ ¢ into the market and finding there a man whom one wanted, but did not expect to meetâ„ ¢.[22] In this circumstance the meeting of the man is described as a chance event. Now the surprising circumstance, according to Aristotle, is that while some people believe that the meeting of the man is not due to chance, yet people often speak of that event as happening by chance. Aristotle thus sets out to analyze the circumstances under which an event is said to be happening by chanceâ„ ¢. The first characteristic he identifies as required for an event to be described as happening by chanceâ„ ¢ is that it should not come to pass by necessity, always or for the most part. Thus he is referring here to a necessary condition under which the expression by chanceâ„ ¢ or its equivalents can apply. If the condition does not obtain, the expression is no longer applicable. If the man who went to the market had met the other man there always or frequently, that particular instance of meeting him would not have been characterized as a matter of coincidenceâ„ ¢, or as occurring by chanceâ„ ¢. Stating these necessary conditions for the application of the term the effect of chanceâ„ ¢ seems to be all that Aristotle has in mind when he says, nor can the effect of chanceâ„ ¢ be identified with any of the things that come to pass by necessity and always, or for the most partâ„ ¢. From this I conclude that Aristotleâ„ ¢s statement is not to be taken to imply that if the circumstance is not of the type to which the expression the effect of chanceâ„ ¢ is applicable, then there is a necessary or causal connection involved in that circumstance. On the contrary, it seems fairly clear that the statement in question describes one of the conditions Aristotle has found necessary for describing an event as happening by chanceâ„ ¢. If this is correct then the principle cannot be used as a ground for justification of inductive generalization. There is yet another condition in this theory to be satisfied, if an event is to be described as happening by chanceâ„ ¢. It must belong to the class of events, [I]n connexion with which the phrase for the sake of something is applicable. (Events that are for the sake of something include whatever may be done as a result of thought or of nature).[23] Thus, according to Aristotle, where both conditions apply the event is said to be happening by chanceâ„ ¢. This means that if the second condition were not satisfied the phrase would not be applicable. That is, it may be that an event is infrequent and rare, and yet not referred to as coming about by chance. From what we have said it is, however, clear that the statement What is true as a matter of coincidence cannot occur always or frequentlyâ„ ¢ as it is used by Aristotle is different from that statement as it used by Avicenna. Avicenna wants to employ the statement as a principle underlying our inductive reasoning, and as a ground for establishing the existence of a necessary connection among events that occur always or frequently in a determinate manner. And this is not, as we have observed, the way in which Aristotle uses the principle. When he said due to chanceâ„ ¢ could not be said of the events that occur frequently, what he meant was that when any course of events occurs frequently it can no longer be characterized accidentally. Thus, the principle in question concerns not the presence of a necessary connection, but rather the use of the expression by chanceâ„ ¢ or accidentally. To use that statement for establishing the existence of a causal connection seems to invol ve a misinterpretation of an Aristotelian thesis that is about language as a thesis about the world. Acknowledgement It is a pleasure to record my thanks to Professor Paul Thom and Professor Frank Jackson of ANU who, commented on an early draft of this paper, and to the University of Isfahan that supported the research. References Al-Farabi, (1985/86). Al-Mantiq inda l-Farabi, edited by R. Al-Ajam, 3 vols. Beirut. Aristotle, (1928) Posterior Analytics, translated by G. R. G. Mure, under the editorship of W. D. Ross, Oxford University Press. Aristotle, (1928) Prior Analytics, translated by A.J. Jenkinson, under the editorship of W.D. Ross, Oxford University Press. Aristotle, (1928) Topics, translated by W. A. Pickard-Cambridge, under the editorship of W. D. Ross, Oxford University Press Aristotle, (1930) Physics, translated by R. P. Hardie and R. K. Gaye, under the editorship of W. D. Ross, Oxford University Press. Avicenna, (1956) Al-Shifa: AI-Mantiq. AI-Burhan(Demonstration), Cairo, edited by A. E. Afifi, Cairo. Avicenna, (1964) Al-Shifa, AI-Tabiâ„ ¢yyat (Physics), edited by Sa`id Zayed, Cairo. Avicenna, (1971) Al-lsharat wal-Tanbihat, with Tusiâ„ ¢s Commentary in Margin, edited by S. Dunya, 4 vols., Cairo. Avicenna, (1971) Avicennaâ„ ¢s Treatise on Logic, translated by F. Zabeeh, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Avicenna, (1984) Remarks and Admonitions: Part One: Logic, translated by S. C. Inati, Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, Toronto, Canada. Avicenna, (1985) Al-Najat, edited by M. T. Daneshpazhooh, Tehran University Press, Tehran. Ayer, A. J. (1972) Probability and Evidence, Macmillan. Cohen, L.J. and Hesse, M. (eds.) (1980) Applications of Inductive Logic, Oxford, Gohlman, W. E. (1974) The Life of Ibn Sina, Albany: SUNY Press Claredon Press. Hume, D. (1955) A Treatise of Human Nature, ed. Selby Bigge, L. A. Oxford. Weinberg, J. R. (1965) Abstraction, Relation, and Induction, University of Wisconsin Press, Wisconsine [1] Avicenna ( Ibn Sina ) lived from 980-1037 AD. For further information on his life, see Gohlman, W. E. (1974). For a detailed discussion of Avicennaâ„ ¢s influence upon Mediaeval philosophers, see Weinberg, J. R. 1965, chap. iii. [2] AL-ajam, R. 1`985/86, Vol. 3 , p. 100. [3] See Cohen, L.J. Hesse, M. 1980, p. viii. [4] See also, Avicenna, 1985, p. 5,: Avicenna, 1984, p. 129,: Avicenna, 1964, p. 557. [5] The translation is made by the author from the Persian original. Also cf F. Zabeeh, 1971, p. 25. Similar remarks can be found in Avicenna, 1984, p. 129. [6] In al-Shifa, he refers to this deduction simply as deduction but in a later work, al-Isharat, he also adds the adjective concealed (or imperceived), perhaps to distinguish it from enthymeme. [7] Avicenna, 1956, p. 95, ff. All my translations into Englishare are made from this edition. [8] It must, however, be said that his last work, Isharat does not support the principle and allows for unrealized possibilities. [9] Avicenna, 1956, p. 97. [10] Avicenna, 1956, p. 97. [11] Avicenna, 1956, p. 96. [12] Avicenna, 1956, p. 97. [13] Avicenna, 1956, p. 96. [14] For a servey of Inductive support for induction see Induction by Max Black, in Encyclopedia of Philosophy , ed. Paul Edwaqrds, 1986. [15] Avicenna, 1956, p. 96. [16] Avicenna, 1956, p. 97. [17] Ayer, 1972, pp. 20-1. [18] Ibid., p. 21. [19] Avicenna, 1956, p. 96. [20] Physics, II, 4, 196b 8-9. [21] Physics, II, 4, 196a 12-14. [22] Physics, II, 4, 196a 2-4. [23] Physics, II, 5, 196b 21-23.

Van Duerm essays

Van Duerm essays Anxious young fans swayed under open skies and heavy rains, reveling in the music and sustaining a mood of hope and renewal that would define their generation. Only some 80,000 people remained from an overwhelming 400,000 that Monday, August 18, 1969 at Max Yasgur' s dairy farm in Bethel, New York (Piccoli 112). They awaited Jimi Hendrix and his band as they prepared to close the Woodstock Music and Arts Festival. The event was becoming a special memory that no future event would ever quite be able to match in its mixture of music, magic, misery, spontaneity, and history. Those who had left before the finale would live to realize their regret. The last act walked onto the stage under a streaky morning sky with his white Fender Stratocaster slung over one shoulder and his wild black hair bound in a red headband (Piccoli 11-12). The group eventually began and tore into the classic hit "Fire" followed by an ensemble of prime works of "Isabella", "Hear My Train A -Comin, and the proclaimed new American anthem of "Voodoo Chile (Wadleigh 60). Plagued by a bad sound system, due to rain and electrical storms, a sunken stage, and adverse weather conditions, Hendrix could not quite win the crowd over. That was until he stepped away from his microphone, looking like a cowboy gypsie and cosmic hitchhiker, sounded out the first notes of the song everyone knew so well: "The Star Spangled Banner." Hendrix's guitar seemed to mock and revere the national anthem's grandiosity. The effects of one of the most electrifying performances ever was captured by Michael Wadleigh himself, the director of the famous Woodstock documentary, The experience of standing in front of Hendrix was awesome. The hair came up on the back of my neck and everybodys neck. You did not hear the sound through your ears, you heard it through your diaphragm. It vibrated. It kicked you...

Amazons Business Model and the Operational Strategies Coursework - 1

Amazons Business Model and the Operational Strategies - Coursework Example Amazon has been able to pull of its business model through the use of three operational strategies to enhance its competitive advantage: low-cost leadership and customer differentiation. However, when we evaluate Amazon’s business model and the operational strategies that underlie it they greatly resemble those of its key competitor Barnes & Noble. Barnes & Noble also used its economies of scale to support low-cost leadership, it broke new ground by developing software that would enable its customers to personalize their web pages and also enjoy the results of collaborative filtering (Ghemawat 13). The difference in one organization’s choice to use a pure play system while the other uses a brick-and-click system is too simplistic to explain the relative success of Amazon.com over Barnes & Noble. This would be best explained through the dynamic capability. Dynamic capability refers to the ability of the firm to purposefully create, extend or modify its resource base so as to achieve congruence with the changing business environment (Menon and Mohanty 3). Of importance to note is the use of the word â€Å"purposefully† which negates the element of accident or luck. Dynamic capability involves intent and the emergent stream of activities within an organization that is taken with a certain implicit aim. Although dynamic capabilities are equifinal and exhibit commonalities across firms, performance differences arise between firms due to both cost and differential timing with which the dynamic capabilities are used (Menon and Mohanty 5). They are path dependent processes thus are idiosyncratic and difficult to imitate. Dynamic capabilities can be a source of competitive advantage. That is why even though Barnes & Noble seem to be following similar operational strategies to Amazon.com, the results are different for each firm.

Best Orientation Practices For Nurses Term Paper

Best Orientation Practices For Nurses - Term Paper Example In the nursing profession, one of the problems facing nurses involves the retention of nurses. A methodical investigation cited by Kiel (2012) indicates that approximately thirty percent of newly registered nurses abscond from the nursing profession before the end of the first year at the job. Additional investigations showed that a quarter of newly licensed or registered nurses leave their jobs before the end of two years at the job (Kiel, 2012). This has necessitated the need for the introduction of effective orientation programs geared towards equipping these newly licensed nurses with skills and competency to remain at the job. In other words, the main challenge faced by these nurses during orientation is transitioning from being a student to a nursing professional. An article by Brown and Pillar (2014) brings out the fact that health organizations are faced with difficulties relating to how to successfully orient nurses in a bid to help them be accustomed to the daily running of the organizations. According to Robitaille (2013), "An effective orientation process is crucial to help ensure an individual's competency to perform his or her role and familiarize the oriented with an organization's culture, policies, and procedures, and unit-level protocols" (p. C7). In some cases, nurse managers assume the newly employed nurses will orient themselves in the course of their duties. Additionally, some nurse managers fail to ensure orientation of new nurses due to the high costs involved in such orientations.

Violence In The Flight Novel English Literature Essay

Violence In The Flight Novel English Literature Essay In the current essay I would like to describe the violence, reflected in the novel by Sherman Alexie Flight. it should be noted that violence is an effect without consent in respect of an individual or a group.  As a rule, the degree of violence is measured by the severity of the damage caused to the victim. There are different kinds of violence, among them are: inter- or intra-racial hostility, political violence, terrorism, war, child abuse, or sexual assault. There are numerous classifications of violence depending on the trait, among them are: By the principle of action: physical, psychological, emotional, sexual, etc. On social grounds: political, religious, domestic, gender, violence against minors, animal abuse, etc. On the number of victims: the massive, group, individual. On the shape of the damage: the threat of terrorism, extortion, rape, attacks on property or territory, the promotion of violence through the media, etc. Thesis statement: violence is considered one of the cruelest expressions of physical force against people. The novel describes different situations that reflect violence from different sides, showing hatred, pain and suffering of people, which is the consequence of violence. As a matter of fact, any form of violence is unacceptable. The novel is written in first person, from the perspective of Native American teen who calls himself spots, travel back in time mass murderer. The novel describes the life of  Zit, who is a foster child, and who has spent most of his life, who has faced different negative experiences.  It can be said that in the novel Zit enters a new way of thinking, and the thoughts considering the commitment of various kinds of violence.  During the one of these incidents, Zit represents the body of a stranger, who will be the first of many such incidents.  History confronts feelings of Zits vulnerability, understood as a teenager, orphaned children, as well as Native American people, as described in Sherman Alexie discusses  Flight, his first novel in a decade. For me, there were several aspects that influenced my perception of the violence, first of all it was different transformation of the main character: FBI Agent Hank Storm, Indian boy, Indian tracker, pilot Jimmy, Zits father. In the Flight are present different themes: adolescence, morality, native American, and violence. Theme violence describes: I get into arguments and fights with everyone. I am so angry that I was going blind and deaf and dumb, as stated in Time-Traveling Lessons for a Teenager on the Verge.  Zits starts off as very angry and violent man.  He is so violent, that he expresses his hatred and anger on anyone around him. The boy also became a witness of violence, when he experienced transformations. By going through the events that he can not change anything, he realizes that the violence was severe consequences. And, understanding the way the violence affects people who surround him, he decides that he is living wrong, and he has to change something. As a matter of fact, the origins of violence and destruction in the novel refer to the issues of morality, perception of life and racism. As well, the novel reflects the life of minorities, their views on life and ethnic groups. Also, problems in society can be the origin of violence. This can lead to the serious consequences and sometimes even murder. Considering the Native American issue, the author describes the racism and also stigma that refer to a Native American. He also understands the influence of minority views on life, depending on the background.  As a fact, Zit understood that all people have different views and ideals.  Zit learned a lot about his own people, when he found out that his own story lied to him. As a fact, there are always different sides of the story. In my opinion this thesis is proved by such quote: My father was an Indian. From this or that tribe. From this or that reservation. I never knew himà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Im Irish and Indian, which would be the coolest blend in the world if my parents were around to teach me how to be Irish and Indian. But theyre not here and havent been for years. So, Im not really Irish or Indian. Im a blank sky, a human solar eclipse, as stated in Flight: A Novel. As a rule, readers state that the novel explores vengeance, against both enemies and strangers, and some of the scenes are disturbing, according to Sherman Alexie discusses  Flight, his first novel in a decade. As well, in the book there are described the causes of violence. The positive moment is that there is a protagonists refusal to continue participation in violence. According to the Sherman Alexie, there was following motive to write this novel: So that sense of personal betrayal, when compared to the epic crime, that combination just hit me. So I started writing about that, but then I started thinking about other moments of incredible violence in United States history and what story hadnt been told about that particular act of violence. And so I started writing about other eras, according to Time-Traveling Lessons for a Teenager on the Verge. To sum it up, I would like to say that violence has to be prevented, especially gender, youth and targeted violence. Violence in the modern world leads to self-destructive behavior of people, such as drinking or running away from family or society. Also, violence leads to conflicts escalation and also major problems in humanity.

Swot of Disneyland

SWOT – HOW DISNEYLAND HK CAN RELATE TO THE EMERGENCE OF ANOTHER DISNEYLAND IN SHANGHAI IN COMING DECADES : HOW HONG KONG CAN FURTHER STRENGTHEN THE EXISTENCE OF DISNEYLAND IN HK FOR BREAKEVEN SAKE: WHAT OTHER STRENGTH HK DISNEYLAND CAN SUSTAIN TO SURIVIVE FOR SHANGHAI DISNEYLAND BEING OPENED IN FEW YEARS LATER WITH DECREASE OF VISITORS FROM MAINLAND . WHAT IS THE WEAKNESS OF HONG KONG DISNEYLAND THAT CANNOT ATTRACT ENOUGH VISITORS TO MAINTAIN BREAKEVEN WITHOUT SUBSIDY FROM HK GOVERNMENT FOR EXAMPLES, POOR INFRASTRUCTURE FACILITIES IN DISNEYLAND, LIKE LITTLE FOOD CHOICES OPEN TO FIT FOR DIFFERENT PEOPLE . SPACE IS SMALL AND THE AMUSEMENT FACILITIES DID NOT UPDATE FREQUENELTY. MOVEROVER,THE ROAD SHOW LAST FOR SEVERAL MONTH WITHOUT CHANGE. THE TRANSPORATION FARES IS ABNORMALLY HIGH WHICH DETER HONGKONGESE TO VISIT AGAIN . OPPORUNTITIES : RE-BRANDING OF DISNEYLAND,MORE NEW THEME DRAMA , ROAD SHOW AND MUSICAL SHOW AND INNOVATIVE ADVERTISING AND PROMOTIONAL ELEMENTS THERE . THREAT – COMPETITION FROM HK OCEAN PARK BECAUSE LOWER ENTRANCE FEES AND BETTER TRANSPORATION NETWORK AND FARES. MORE LOCAL AND MULTI-CULTURAL ELEMENTS EMBEDDED INTO THE FACILITES AND VISUAL AIDS. MOST IMPORTANT IS THE EMERGENCE OF SHANGHAI DISNEYLAND . BASED ON ABOVE 4 ELEMENTS TO SEE WHEHTER THERE IS A DRASTIC CHANGE TO EXISTING HK DISNEYLAND MARKETING GLIMMSPE. IF HK GOVERNMENT NEED TO HAVE COLLATERAL CONTRACT WITH US DISNEYLAND, THERE IS NO DOUBT THAT HK SHOULD BOUND THE AGREED PERIOD OF TIME TO REPRESENT DISNEYLAND TO PROVIDE MINIMAL LEVEL OF SERVICE TO VISITORS. AFTER THE EXPIRATION OF ALL THE CONTRACT SERVICING PERIOD, HK WOULD CHANGE THE STRUCTURE/MARKETING STRATEGIES BY WHATEVER MEANS.

Basic Argument for Fatalism

Metaphysics The â€Å"Basic† Argument for Theological Fatalism Fatalism Fatalism is the view that everything that happens in entirely unavoidable. Since everything that happens is unavoidable, none of our actions are genuinely up to us and we powerless to do anything other than what we actually do. Here is Richard Taylor on what the fatalist believes [â€Å"Fate† from Metaphysics, 4th Ed (Pearson, 1991)]: â€Å"A fatalist is someone who believes that whatever happens is and always was unavoidable.He thinks it is not up to him what will happen a thousand years hence, next year, tomorrow, or the very next moment. † (52) â€Å"A fatalist thinks of the future in the way we all think of the past, for everyone is a fatalist as he looks back on things. † (52) We all think of the past â€Å"as something settled and fixed, to be taken for what it is. We are never in the least tempted to try to modify it. It is not in the least up to us what happened last year, yes terday, or even a moment ago, any more than are the motions of the heaves or the political developments in Tibet. We say of past things that they are no longer within our power. The fatalist says they never were. † (52-53) Theological Fatalism According to the main versions of Western Monotheism (e. g. traditional Christianity), God is omniscient. To be omniscient is to have (in some important sense) unlimited knowledge. It’s hard to say what this amounts to, but let’s use the following definition (since it’s common) x is omniscient = for x knows every true proposition and x does not believe any false propositions.Many people think that omniscience is incompatible with human freedom, because it implies the doctrine of theological fatalism. Theological fatalism is the view that all human actions are unavoidable (and we are powerless to do anything other than what we actually do) because God has exhaustive foreknowledge of all future human actions. Here is a n important statement of the argument for theological fatalism from Augustine (On Free Choice of the Will, Book III) I very much wonder how God can have foreknowledge of everything in the future, and yet we do not sin by necessity.It would be an irreligious and completely insane attack on God’s foreknowledge to say that something could happen otherwise than as God foreknew †¦ Since God foreknew that [Adam] was going to sin, his sin necessarily had to happen. How, then, is the will free when such inescapable necessity is found in it? Surely this is the problem †¦ How is it that these two propositions are not contradictory and inconsistent: (1) God has foreknowledge of everything in the future; and (2) We sin by the will, not by necessity? For, you say, if God foreknows that someone is going to sin, then it is necessary that he sin.But if it is necessary, the will has no choice about whether to sin; there is an inescapable and fixed necessity. And so you fear that thi s argument forces us into one of two positions: either we draw the heretical conclusion that God does not foreknow everything in the future; or, if we cannot accept this conclusion, we must admit that sin happens by necessity and not by will. The Basic Argument for Theological Fatalism Where S stands for any person whatsoever and A stands for any action, Augustine’s argument can be stated as: 1. For any person, S, and an action, A, that S performs, God knew in advance that S will do A. 2.If God knows in advance that S will do A, then it necessary that S will do A. 3. Therefore, it is necessary that S will do A. 4. If it is necessary that S will do A, then S is not free to refrain from performing A. 5. If S is not free to refrain from performing A, then S does not freely perform A. 6. Therefore, no person ever acts freely. Evaluating the argument Premise 2 is ambiguous †¢P2a: Necessarily, If God knows in advance that S will perform A, then S will perform A (De Dicto) â₠¬ ¢P2b: If God knows in advance that S will perform A, then necessarily S will perform A (De Re) P2a is true but the resulting argument is invalidP2a is true. It says that the proposition â€Å"if God knows in advance that S will perform A, then S will perform A† is necessarily true and this just means that it is impossible for God to know in advance that, for example, I will raise my arm at some time and I fail to raise my arm at that time. We can put this by saying that God’s knowing in advance that I will raise my arm at some time logically entails that I will raise my arm at that time. P2a is a way of expressing this truth. The resulting argument is invalid. Using P2a as the key premise, the argument is: 1.Necessarily, if God knows in advance that S will perform A, then S will perform A. 2. God knows in advance that S will perform A. 3. Therefore, necessarily, S will perform A. But this argument is invalid (the conclusion doesn’t follow from the premises). W e can show this by means of a counterexample (an argument of the same form with true premises and a false conclusion). The form of this argument is: 1. Necessarily, If p, then p. 2. P 3. Therefore, necessarily q. To see that the argument is invalid, use the following substitutions: p = K. Sharpe weighs over 200lbs, q = K. Sharpe weighs over 199lbs. . Necessarily, If K. Sharpe weighs over 200lbs, then K. Sharpe weighs over 199lbs. 2. K. Sharpe weighs over 200lbs 3. Therefore, necessarily K. Sharpe weighs over 199lbs. The premises of this argument are true but the conclusion is obviously false (I could go on a diet and successfully lose some weight). I weigh over 199lbs but not essentially. I could weigh less than 199lbs and, in fact, I did weigh less than 199lbs at one point. All that follows from the first two premises is that, in fact, I in fact weight more than 199lbs. It doesn’t follow that it is impossible for me to weigh less than 199lbs.Just in case you are not convince d, here is a second counterexample (Plantinga’s) 1. Necessarily, if I know that George Clooney is a bachelor, then George Clooney is a bachelor. 2. I know that George Clooney is a bachelor. 3. Therefore, it is necessarily true that George Clooney is a bachelor Again, the premises are true but the conclusion is false. George Clooney is a bachelor but he is not essentially a bachelor. He could get married, he just chooses not to. All that follows from the first two premises is that George Clooney is in fact a bachelor (not that he is essentially a bachelor).P2b renders the argument valid but it is obviously false 1. If God knows in advance that S will perform A, then necessarily S will perform A. 2. God knows in advance that S will perform A. 3. Therefore, necessarily S will perform A. This argument is valid (it’s just modus ponens) and so if the premises were true then conclusion would be true as well. But P2b is false. Given the de re reading of P2b, it says that whate ver propositions God knows are necessarily true or, to put the point in terms of properties, if God knows that some object has a property then the object has that property essentially.Taken in this way, P2b is obviously false (nor does it follow from omniscience). Since the basic argument has to rely on either P2a or P2b, the argument is either invalid or relies on a false premise. Either way it’s unsound. Here is a way of thinking about this criticism of the argument. From the fact that God knows that Paul will mow his yard on July 7, 2015 it follows that, on July 7 2015, Paul mows his yard and that he does not refrain from mowing his yard on that day.But, it does not follow that it is metaphysically impossible for Paul to refrain from mowing his yard that day (that Paul does not refrain from mowing and it is impossible that Paul refrain from mowing are two very different things). All that follows from the fact that God knows in advance that Paul will mow is that Paul will n ot exercise his power to refrain not that he lacks the power the power to refrain. The basic argument for theological fatalism needs the later inference, but that inference is not a good one. Thus, the basic argument fails.